Past present: Understanding the truth

From the earlier period of human civilisation, the priestly class monopolised religious knowledge which elevated their social status in the society. They were venerated and respected as the custodians of religious knowledge which they jealously guarded and refused to share with anyone in society.

The Brahman caste in India specialised in religious rituals and sacred books. They knew the Sanskrit language and memorised the Vedas word to word and transferred it from one generation to another. Their high and spiritual status was affected in the 13th century when the Turks invaded India and after defeating the local rulers founded their kingdom. The Brahmans were ousted from state administration and marginalised their role as religious leaders. When Persian became the court language, Sanskrit lost its status. However, the Brahmans retained religious knowledge within their caste. Al Biruni (d.1048), who visited India in the 10th century pointed out that the Brahmans were not ready to teach him the Sanskrit language in which religious literature was written. Despite this drawback, he learnt Sanskrit and wrote Kitabul Hind on Indian religion, philosophy and customs.

In Christianity, the knowledge of Bible was confined only to the priestly class. Originally the Bible was written in Greek and later translated into Latin, the language of the educated classes of Europe. It was in the interest of the priestly class that the Bible should not be translated into other European languages. Generally, the majority of people did not understand what was being said when the Bishops and other office holders performed services in Latin. People attended the service and silently listened to the sermons and passages from the Bible without understanding them. The situation changed when in 1517 Martin Luther challenged the Pope and the Church and consequently Christianity was divided between the Catholic and Protestant sects. England also defied the authority of the Pope, however, the translation of Bible into English was not permitted. There were some secret societies that organised meetings where the Bible was read in English language. When William Tyndale (c.d.1536) openly translated it into English, he was declared a heretic and burnt at stake.

If people were able to read sacred texts in their own language, the church domination would crumble
With the passage of time, the situation changed and when James-I (r. 1603-1625) became the ruler of England, the Bible was translated under the guidance and supervision of a committee, which became famous as King James’ Bible. The language of the translation is very elegant and beautiful. Realising the importance of translation, the church relaxed its restrictions and the project of translation of Bible was undertaken by the missionaries who visited Asian and African countries to preach Christianity. They learnt the local languages and translated Bible into them, as a result of which Biblical text became accessible to every Christian.

In the Islamic world, the ulema did not encourage the translation of Holy Quran into other languages because it threatened their monopoly of interpretation and explanation of the Quran. However, the first Latin translation of the Holy Quran was completed in 12th century in Spain, in order to understand Islam and to challenge it as a rival religion to Christianity. When the Christian missionaries arrived in India on the request of Akbar, to discuss the teachings of Christianity, the missionaries were well aware of the contents of the Holy Quran which they studied from the Latin translation. They could quote the Quran, and disagree with the ulema. On the contrary, since Bible had not been translated into Persian, the ulema were unaware of its contents and in no position to challenge the Christian missionaries. This interesting detail is found in the Commentary of Father Monserrat, which was written in Latin and later translated into other languages.

The situation changed when in 1517 Martin Luther challenged the Pope and the Church and consequently Christianity was divided between the Catholic and Protestant sects. England also defied the authority of the Pope, however, the translation of Bible into English was not permitted.
However, when non-Arabs converted to Islam, Arabic text could not be understood by them, therefore, there was a need to translate it into local languages in order to reach to common people. In the subcontinent, when Shah Waliullah (d.1762) translated it into Persian, he was criticised and condemned by the ulema. When his grandson translated it into Urdu, he was not only condemned but also maltreated by religious scholars. Later, Nazir Ahmed Dehalvi (d. 1912) translated it into simple Urdu language.

In Pakistan, the Urdu translation is published with Arabic text. In the absence of Urdu translation, the knowledge of Holy Quran is not understood by common people who cannot understand Arabic. However, in the European languages, there are different translations available without Arabic text.

In the modern period, religious knowledge was no more under the control of the priestly classes. It was widely printed and within the reach of common people. Although the religious scholars made efforts to control religious knowledge and interpret it according to their interest, on the other hand there are some educated people who challenged the monopoly of the priestly classes and replaced their knowledge with modernity which fulfills the need of the time.

Source: Understanding the truth
Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, January 17th, 2016

Past present: Lies and half-truths

In the mediaeval period, education in the Christian world was controlled by the church. In Europe it continued in this way right up to the French Revolution in the 1789. The revolution strengthened the nation state and promoted the idea of nationalism. The monopoly of church was abolished and the education system nationalised. This radically changed the structure of textbooks. The church’s object of education was to create a sense of universalisms and brotherhood among the Christians but under the nation state, the emphasis was not on the Christian brotherhood but on the interest of the nation.

In 1799, Napoleon (d.1821) usurped power and made himself the emperor of France. This was when he realised the importance of textbooks which he used to project his image and to create loyalty among the young generation. Since separate textbooks were developed for girls emphasising domestic duties, music and dance lessons, they discriminated female students, limiting their educational vision. The French pattern was followed by other European nations as well.

When European powers colonised Asian and African countries, they also used textbooks to promote their image. In India, the British government introduced lessons to emphasise the glory of their rule and how it was a blessing for people. Efforts were made to distort Indian rulers’ who resisted British hegemony. Tipu Sultan (d. 1799) who fought against the British was portrayed in textbooks as a fanatic and an extremist who forcibly converted Hindus to Islam. On the contrary, Tipu was a liberal and enlightened ruler.

Why are we telling our students stories that we know are false?
However, in much the same way other rulers of India like Siraj ud-Daula (d.1757) and Bahadur Shah Zafar (d.1862) were also maligned. The war of independence, 1857 was presented as a mutiny and those who fought were dubbed as rebels. The English generals and politicians who conquered India were introduced as the heroes and builders of the empire. English literature was also included in the curriculum and at the end of every textbook was a lesson about the British government of India. As a result, those who studied from these textbooks were highly influenced and impressed by the British culture. It changed their world view and instead of studying their own history and culture, they preferred the European outlook.

Gradually, the situation in the subcontinent changed and the struggle for freedom started. The spirit of nationalism inspired nationalists to challenge the educational system and the contents of the textbooks. The nationalist historians begin to construct the anti-colonial narratives. After independence, this process was accelerated and the textbooks that were developed changed the entire format of colonial textbooks. For example, mutiny became the war of independence, the rebels were converted to freedom fighters and Tipu Sultan achieved the status of national hero. These textbooks were about politicians who struggled against the foreign rule. They were given an elevated status. The new textbooks created a concept of birth of a nation with new energy and fresh spirit to build its future and wipe out all the traces of colonialism that had come to an end.

Textbooks suffer immensely in ideological states where the ruling classes consciously exclude anything that could be harmful or damaging to their ideology. The motive of the textbooks therefore is to indoctrinate a certain ideology therefore these textbooks provide selected information while all other material that contradicts ideology is carefully deleted. For example, in Stalin’s Russia (d.1853), all his rivals were excluded not only from textbooks but also from its national history. Trotsky (d.1940) who played very active role in the Russian revolution was expelled from all official documents. In Nazi Germany, Hitler (d.1945) was depicted as ‘Fuhrer’ or Leader who delivered Germany from the humiliation and raised her status as a powerful nation. These textbooks also contained the purity and supremacy of the Arian race and were meant to inspire the young generation to play a significant role for greater Germany.

Pakistan has also declared itself as an ideological state. As a result, textbooks include the concept of the two-nation theory as the basis for this country. Our textbooks have also been Islamised. So the first lesson in the science textbooks is about the contribution of Muslim scientists so much so that history is distorted and historical facts manipulated to justify the basis of a specific ideology. When students are not provided complete and correct information, their knowledge and vision of the world is reduced. Whenever an attempt is made to remove the errors and improve the textbooks, religious parties and conservative circles start to protest and demonstrate and force the authorities to continue the inclusion of ideological material in the textbooks. It is quite obvious that defective textbooks create a defective mindset. Ideology limits people from acquiring new knowledge in order to understand the fast changing world.

Source: Past present: Lies and half-truths
Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, January 31st, 2016

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The world is changed by your example, not by your opinion !

Past present: Just one side of the story

Nation states remain conscious about the content of textbooks, since their aim is to highlight historical achievements and to ignore weaknesses of the rulers. In case of war, victory is mentioned while defeats are ignored. In the third world countries, textbooks are continuously changed when political parties with different political ideologies come to power. When a dictator usurps power, he is admired and projected in textbooks. When democratic changes occur, the dictator disappear in historic oblivion. Thus, we find that in both India and Pakistan, textbooks have become the victim of political parties that have come into power.

After the independence in 1947, realising the importance of textbooks, some leading Indian historians, including Satish Chandara, Rumila Thapar and H.R. Sharma, decided to write history textbooks. However, when Morarji Desai (1977) and his Janata party came to power, old textbooks were discarded and new ones developed on the basis of conservativism. Since then, textbooks have been victimised by every government. During the congress party rule, the contents of textbooks becomes liberal and tolerable to the religious minorities of India. In 1998, during BJP’s government under Atal Bihari Vajpayee, a major change occurred in textbooks when the Hindutva ideology was propagated and Hindu symbols were depicted, subsequently creating religious fanaticism and extremism.

In 2004, during the Congress government under Manmohan Singh, new textbooks were written in the supervision of reputed historians. These contained material which promoted tolerance and a positive understanding of history. However, these efforts have proved futile when the BJP won the 2014 general elections and Narendar Modi became the prime minister. The BJP government immediately announced that textbooks would be changed and now the outline of these textbooks was to project the achievements of the Vedic period. In the new books, it is argued that astrology should be treated as science despite India having scientifically and technologically advanced. In addition, the Muslim rulers are condemned as foreigners, it is further believed that the Arians were originally Indians and from India they went abroad. It is evident that such textbooks create religious intolerance and a hatred against other religious communities.

History gets made up as textbooks are tampered with to suit and serve the regime
Textbooks which inspire nationalism and patriotism are also politically used in America and European countries. In American books we find the American revolution glorified, along with an admiration for the founding fathers and a pride for their democratic institutions, but no reference to the native Indians who were mistreated, exploited and massacred by the European immigrants. There is also no reference to the slaves brought from Africa who were sold in the market and discriminated against on the basis of colour. The authors of these textbooks are careful not to mention the American intervention in the internal affairs of the foreign countries. Their bombardment and inhuman treatment against the Vietnamese and their defeat in Vietnam is not mention. Thus these textbooks present just one side of the story.

Similarly, British textbooks proudly describe the expansion of the British rule to the African and Asian countries and how they civilised and modernised these countries. They are hesitant to recognise the rebellion and resistance against their rule. There is no reference to their brutality or when the colonial government humiliated, insulted, subdued and crushed the local population. The objective of these textbooks is to revive the grandeur and greatness of the empire. Consequently, the young educated generation looks down upon the nation which their ancestors once colonised.

We find similar attitude in Pakistani textbooks. The war of 1965 is presented as a glorious victory against India with war heroes being exalted for the sacrifices rendered in defense of the country. However, a silence surrounds the 1971 war and the separation of East Pakistan, which emerged as independent Bangladesh. Therefore, textbooks in nearly all nation states are defective and do not provide full and correct information to students.

Several attempts have been made by Pakistani and Indian historians to write common textbooks which avoid hatred created by the antithetical interpretation of history. But despite a few meetings, the project did not succeed due to political tension between India and Pakistan.

However, intellectuals in every country point out the weaknesses and defects in textbooks but their criticism is ignored and little or no attention paid in order to revise them and create positive and analytical understanding of history.

Source: Past present: Just one side of the story
Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, February 14th, 2016

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The world is changed by your example, not by your opinion !

Past present: The grand old man

In the 19th century, European imperialism colonised most of the African and Asian countries and was perhaps at its zenith regarding its success as a blessing of God. The political power and domination over colonies created a sense of pride and arrogance among European nations to condescend the colonised nations as backward and uncivilised.

The imperialist policies were supported by European intellectuals who provided theories for its justification. It was during this period that the racist theory was circulated among the European societies with the assertion that the white race was endowed with special qualities by nature, and hence was believed to be superior and they had a moral right to rule over the inferior races of African and Asian countries. When Darwin’s book, The Origin of Species, was published in 1859, his theory of evolution was misinterpreted by the racists as social Darwinism and they popularised the idea of hegemony of the white race over non-white nations.

In 1863, John Crawfurd (d.1868), the president of Ethnological Society of London delivered a lecture which was attended by the top intellectuals of the city. The objective of his lecture was to justify the rule of the white races in the colonies on the basis of their superiority in knowledge of technology and culture.

Dadabhai Naoroji was one of the founding members of the Indian National Congress, the first British Asian MP to be elected in 1892 and Mr Jinnah’s mentor and confidant
Among the audience sat Dadabhai Naoroji, an Indian, who was greatly disturbed by the logic of racial superiority of the whites and decided to respond to the lecture. In the same hall, before the same audience, Naoroji logically rejected the argument of John Crawfurd and presented his views that there was no difference among different races while each had the potential and the energy to survive against the odds and expressed its creativity in order to accomplish its design. Therefore, it was wrong to believe that the white races had special qualities and character. Every race had its merits and demerits.

The audience appreciated his lecture and Naoroji emerged as a political figure in London. He decided to take part in politics and joined the Liberal party. He contested for the general elections but did not win the first time; however, in 1892 he contested from the constituency of Finsbury Park and this time won the elections to become the first Indian member of the British Parliament. During his election campaign, Lord Salsbury (prominent conservative statesman and thrice prime minister) had famously referred to him as a black man in one of his remarks in regard to the elections and the constituency of Finsbury. Incidently, being a Parsi, Naoroji was not dark but fairly pale. The remarks went in his favour and his supporters rejected the prime minister’s comments for being racist. In the House of Commons, Naoroji presented the issues of the subcontinent before the House and also supported the Irish cause.

Naoroji was well-educated and understood the impact of colonialism in the subcontinent. In 1901, his book Poverty and un-British Rule in India presented the drain theory explaining how every year the British took away from £30 to £40 million from India and consequently reduced it to poverty. His argument was that many invaders had plundered India’s wealth in the past. However, after their departure, the damage and loss was eventually recovered by the Indians and the wounds inflicted by the invaders would heal with the passage of time. This indicated the energy and potential of the people of the subcontinent. On the other hand, invaders who settled in India kept its wealth within the country. But in case of the British rule, the Indian resources were drained constantly to Britain, leaving the Indian wounds unhealed. As a result, India was not getting any benefits but facing losses becoming poor and backward. His thesis provided a base for the anti-colonial movement in the subcontinent.

Dadabhai was among the founding members of the Indian National Congress and became its president in 1886. He inspired the young generation of Indian politicians including Bal Gangadhar Tilak (d.1920), Gopal Krishna Gokhale (d.1915) and Mohammad Ali Jinnah (d.1948). He died in 1917, leaving a rich political and intellectual heritage in the politics of India which laid the foundation for the want of freedom from the British rule. He was moderate and believed to have adopted constitutional ways and means to struggle for freedom. He belonged to the European-educated generation who had studied European politics and learnt how to use it against the colonial power and how to adjust in the changing environment in order to become a progressive and modern country.

Source: Past present: The grand old man
Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, February 28th, 2016

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The world is changed by your example, not by your opinion !

Past present: Voice of the common man

English born, Thomas Paine (1737) was a visionary intellectual who supported victimised people and actively participated in their struggle for their fundamental rights by traversing the borders of nationhood, country and religion. His active role and participation in the American and the French revolutions shows his commitment to the cause of the people.

In 1774, when Thomas Paine reached America, 13 colonies were fighting a war against British colonisation and exploitation. However, a large number of people were hesitant to fight against the mother country. They were loyal to the king and interested in a political compromise rather than separation and independence. Hence these loyalists became a great hurdle in the united struggle against Britain.

In 1776, his famous pamphlet, Common Sense was published, denouncing the institution of kingship and the rule of royal dynasty while promoting republicanism and separation from Britain. He condemned the royalty, its illegitimacy and illegality. He convinced the people of America to renounce their loyalty to British rule and strive for independence. He argued that the institution of kingship was not only a degenerate idea, it also exploited the resources of the country and deprived people of their rights. The pamphlet instantly became popular and was widely read by every section of society. It convinced people to rely on their own resources for their development instead of the mother country to provide help and existence. He pleaded to the people to resist colonial rule.

“These are the times that try men’s souls.” This simple quote by Thomas Paine not only describes the beginnings of the American Revolution, but also his life
In 1789, the French Revolution broke out, mobilising radical intellectuals throughout Europe. They hoped that following in the footsteps of France, they would transform their societies from ancient regimes to modernity. Edmund Burke (d.1797), denounced the French Revolution in his book Reflections on the French Revolution. He argued that the revolution annihilated centuries-old French institutions and traditions and plunged the country into disorder and chaos. Paine refuted Edmund Burke in his response as The Rights of Man in 1791, supporting and justifying the revolution which recognised the fundamental rights of the people.

The publication of the book created unrest among Britain’s ruling classes because revolutionary ideas threatened to disturb the society. Therefore the British government took action against Thomas Paine and he was tried on charges of sedition. He fled from England to France where the revolution was at its peak and joined the National Convention. In 1793, he was imprisoned in France for not endorsing the execution of Louis XVI. During his imprisonment, he wrote and distributed The Age of Reason which later became one of his most famous works. He narrowly escaped execution and was freed from prison in 1794 due to the efforts of James Monroe, then US minister to France.

After being actively involved in the French Revolution, Paine returned from France to America in 1802 on the invitation of Thomas Jefferson only to discover that his contributions to the American Revolution had been eradicated due to his religious views.

The political scenario in America had changed completely. After independence, neither was slavery abolished nor were women given the right to vote, nor did the common people enjoy the fruits of liberty. This time Paine was not welcomed in view of his religious and political ideas. For the rest of his life, he lived in poverty and when he died in 1807, only six people attended his funeral. His death passed unnoticed in American society to whose freedom he contributed intellectually and politically.

Sometime revolutionaries and radical intellectuals pass through stages of fame to anonymity. Political leaders exploit their views and once they gain power, they set aside the intellectuals who supported them in times of crises. Radical ideas that they once appreciated, later become irrelevant to them. Nevertheless, history preserves the legacy of Thomas Paine to enlighten future generations to learn the lesson of how an intellectual sacrificed his life for the cause of the downtrodden and deprived.

Source: Past present: Voice of the common man
Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, March 13th, 2016

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The world is changed by your example, not by your opinion !

Pastpresent: History she wrote

In medieval India, history was written by court historians employed by the rulers with the specific objective of recording the events and happenings of their reign. This historiography would contain the achievements of the patron ruler and excluded the role of the common man. Moreover, this history would have a masculine tone. In a patriarchal society, there is male domination in every aspect of living, therefore, historians praised their potential or penchant for war, their courage and energy displayed in the battlefield. Women either found no place in the male-dominated history or were only mentioned as subordinates and weak creatures or they were denigrated and blamed for misleading their male counterparts and taking them towards destruction.

In her memoirs, Ahval-i-Humayun Badshah, which is also referred to as Humayun nama, a narration of the ruling period of Babar and Humayun, Gulbadan Begum deviated from the traditional and common practice of history writing. She wrote this history upon the request of Akbar who wanted some intimate and rare material for Akbarnama. The significant aspect of Gulbadan’s history is that she highlighted the domestic life of the Mughal emperors which was beyond the reach of the court historians.

She emphasised cultural and social aspects more than political events. She graphically depicted celebrations and festivals, marriage ceremonies and described family feasts. We can also find interesting aspects of Babar and Humayun’s relations with women. After the conquest of India, 96 women arrived from the royal household of Kabul to India. Babar provided them residence and allowances. He would visit his female relatives every Friday and would rarely miss a visit. Humayun continued the same practice. Once Bega Begum reprimanded Humayun for not visiting her and he made an excuse about being addicted to opium, which made him so lazy that he did not visit her.

While male historians focused on war, bloodshed and victory, Gulbadan Begum’s memoirs brought to light a softer image of the Mughals
Based on Gulbadan Begum’s information, it can be concluded that the women of the royal family had the freedom to participate in social gatherings along with their male relatives. They rode horses, played polo, went hunting and even accompanied their partners in the battlefield. Elderly women were highly respected by the rulers who took their advice in solving family problems. For example, when the civil war was going on among brothers like Humayun and Kamran, or Hindal and Kamran, Khanzada Begum, Babar’s sister made an attempt for reconciliation between them. She was successful for some time but the brothers continued to fight each other for power.

Being a woman, Gulbadan Begum was against war because war consumed their brothers, sons and father. Gulbadan’s real brother Hindal was killed during war, therefore she laments and condemns unnecessary bloodshed.

We also learn about the independence of women with regard to marriage. When Humayun proposed to Hamida Bano, she refused to marry him. When he persisted and the women of the family persuaded her to marry him, she agreed only after a prolonged interval. Interestingly, the freedom which women enjoyed in the early period gradually came to an end during Akbar’s reign. Harbans Mukhia in his book Mughals of India writes that under the influence of Indian customs, Akbar confined women to the harem. Rajputs were appointed as guards round the clock and specific rules and regulations were written for the daily routine of the harem.

Gulbadan’s memoir also depicts cultural and social activities of women like a feast organised by Humayun’s wife, Bega Begum, in which 70,000 people were invited as guests. She also wrote about Hindal’s wedding festivities. According to her memoirs, Humayun initiated the practice of decorating the entire city and giving gifts to people whenever he came victorious after a war.

The memoirs are written in simple language and events narrated concisely, shedding light on aspects of the Mughal family which are not mentioned in traditional history. Her memoirs expressed a feminist version of the history of her time, being against war and politics but favourable to society and culture. It also shows that women are free and independent in the Central Asian culture but in the subcontinent, due to the customs and traditions, women ceased to enjoy the freedom they once had.

Source: Pastpresent: History she wrote
Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, March 27th, 2016

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The world is changed by your example, not by your opinion !

Past present: Poet of the people

Poets, scholars, and intellectuals are sometimes not recognised by their contemporaries either because of their unconventional ideas, their social status or their ethnic and religious identity. However, a time comes when historians rediscover them and bring their person and ideas to light.

Nazir Akbarabadi (d.1830) is included among the poets ignored by their contemporaries despite their popular poetry. Mohammad Hussain Azad (d.1910) did not mention him in Aab-i-Hayat, a commentary on Urdu poetry and his best known work. Nawab Mustafa Khan Shaifta (d.1869) remarked that Nazir

Akbarabadi’s language was that of the common man. It indicates how the ashrafia or the aristocracy differentiated itself from the common people on the basis of language which was heavily Persianised. Generally, the people would speak simple language with Hindi vocabulary. An example is Nazir Akbarabadi’s poem Banjara (a community of nomads who sold grain to traders in the city), the language of this poem is simple with Hindi vocabulary which was easily understood by the common people.

Nazir Akbarabadi’s personality and poetry was discovered during the modern period in an age of democracy when he was recognised as the poet of the people because his language was neither Persianised or Arabicised like that of the aristocracy. He was different in many respects from his contemporaries. It was customary in his time that the poets, historians and scholars would always be patronised either by the rulers or the nobility. It was considered undignified to earn their livelihood by adopting a profession. We have the example of Mirza Ghalib, who refused the professorship at Dehli College and preferred to remain unemployed and continued his efforts for the renewal of his pension. After the decline of the Mughal dynasty, when the Mughal court was not in a position to patronise poets, they left Dehli and wandered from one state to the other in search of patronage.

With his distinctive humanist sensibility, Nazir Akbarabadi stood apart from other poets of his time
When the Mughal court came to an end, Zaheer Dehlvi, first went to the State of Tonk after 1857, and then to Hyderabad Deccan looking for patronage. Awadh, Deccan, Rampur, Murshidabad and some other states provided patronage to poets. Nazir Akbarabadi did not rely on royal or aristocratic patronage. He adopted the teaching profession and lived a simple life without any ambitions to achieve a higher social status. Therefore, he did not leave Agra and spent his life teaching, socialising with common people, participating in festivals, ceremonies and understanding the suffering and pain of poor and deprived segment of the society in his poetry. We find poems on the topic of bread (Roti), money (Paisa), and on the festivals of Holi and Diwali. It shows the composite culture of the Indian society where Hindus and Muslims lived together without any religious discrimination.

However, in his poem Aadmi Nama, a masterpiece by Nazir Akbarabadi, he reduces and demolishes all differences created by the society. The basic idea of the poem is equality in the society after ending family pride, cast, colour, wealth, religion and sects. According to him, basically all men are children of Adam (Aadmi) whether they are rich or poor, or have a high or low status in life. He emphasises that in whatever situation he is, be it eating, singing, weeping or reading, writing or toiling and working, he is nothing but a human being. He snatches away the masks which hide the reality and expose the artificiality and hypocrisy of people. When everybody has the same status of being a human being, one should understand the idea and end discrimination in the society and create equality, peace and harmony.

Nazir Akbarabadi and the poets of his time wrote extensively on the political, social and economic crises of the cities (Sheher ashob) because of the decadence and degeneration of their times. Nazir Akbarabadi also wrote a poem on Agra, which was once the capital city of the Mughal emperors. It decayed and lost its past glory. Taj Mahal and its beauty became distorted by the untended growth of bushes and trees along the building and the lack of maintenance. In his poem, he laments the condition of the common people, such as artisans, workers, shopkeepers, and even prostitutes, who were living in abject poverty. The poem graphically portrays the condition of the common people, who suffered in absence of any government and ruler to take care of the inhabitants of the city.

Nazir Akbarabadi’s poetry is a mine of information about the 18th century north India which had once been the centre of the ruling classes, famous for its wealth and prosperity. Historians should use it as a source of a social history where more emphasis was given to the common people than the aristocracy.

Source: Past present: Poet of the people
Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, April 10th, 2016

__________________
The world is changed by your example, not by your opinion !

Past present: Images of reconstruction

What happened in the past cannot be altered. But the past can be viewed from political, social and ideological perspectives so that historical events and personalities appear in varied shades. This approach transforms history into a dynamic tool that can fulfil the aspirations and needs of a particular set of people.

For example, Renaissance scholars were eager to get rid of their medieval heritage — the beginning of the Middle Ages is thus called the Dark Age as no development of new ideas and thoughts took place during that period. On the other hand, they revived the classical Greek and Roman past to create a new body of knowledge based on rationalism, rather than faith.

The followers of the Romantic period rejected the arguments of Renaissance scholars because they had experienced the Industrial Revolution and degradation of the natural environment, which led them to look back and romanticise the Middle Ages. They glorified the medieval past as an era of peace and harmony, which produced beautiful art, architecture and music. The two contrary ideas are based on different circumstances which scholars of both categories experienced. Hence, they viewed the past from their own perspective.

“There is no single, eternal and immutable ‘truth’ about past events and their meaning.” — James M. McPherson, historian
Similarly, in the medieval period, rulers, politicians and scholars highly admired the ancient Greek state of Sparta. They were very impressed by the Spartan’s military training, discipline and tolerance for war. Herodotus (d.425BC) further glorified the Spartans’ courage and fighting spirit when he narrated the events of the battle of Thermopylae in which 300 Spartans fought against the huge Persian army. However, when democratic institutions developed in Western societies, democracy in Athens was praised for creating freedom of expression manifested in the works of the great philosophers, dramatists, architects, artists, historians and politicians of the time. Democratic society in Europe preferred Athens over Sparta. In fact, Spartan society was condemned for being dictatorial and despotic as it blocked all creative activities and reduced citizens to mere tools for fighting wars — they died young in the name of Sparta.

In the age of democracy, the images of many individuals have been altered or rehabilitated according to the traditions and norms of popular democratic ideas. In Roman history, the assassination of Caesar (d.44BC) is regarded as an important event. Generally, Brutus (d. 42BC) and his friends who had a hand in the murder are depicted by Roman historians as enemies of the state, who subverted its development by killing Caesar — a great general and conqueror. He extended the boundaries of the Roman state and brought war booty and a large number of slaves. Admiration of Caesar continued for a long time in historical narratives.

However, democracy changed the outlook, and Brutus and his associates were portrayed as defenders of freedom who wanted to restore the Roman republic. In England, Cromwell’s (d.1658) army defeated Charles I (d. 1649), the king of England, and executed him for being a traitor. Three years later, Charles II ordered the dead body of his father’s murderer to be hanged, drawn and quartered.

When Carlyle (d.1881) wrote a book on Cromwell, he rehabilitated him and restored his honour and prestige. As a result, British society also recognised his contribution to politics.

When history is written from a local perspective, it changes the central outlook. Akbar (r.1556-1605), regarded as the greatest Mughal emperor, became an invader and imperialist from the local Sindhi point of view for occupying Sindh without any provocation. From the Pathan point of view, the jihad movement of Syed Ahmad Shaheed (d. 1831) is considered a violation as he and his followers interfered in their political affairs and established an Islamic state without their consent. But traditional historians criticised the Pathan tribes who opposed him and resisted his movement.

Initially, the East India Company tried to become the inheritor of Mughal rule and emulated their ceremonies, customs and traditions. However, when it acquired political power, it rejected the Mughal past and portrayed it as despotic and oppressive.

This is how the interpretation of the past changes. The question is whether the present perspective can help us understand the past better. Mostly, we judge the past in light of the present situation, as in the case of Pakistan. Presently, there is political chaos, social anarchy and economic inequality, so many of us feel that our colonial past was an ideal period. Similarly, when we compare the present to the earlier history of Pakistan, the rule of Ayub Khan appears to be peaceful and prosperous. But this assessment of the past is not correct because we tend to ignore the exploitation of colonialism and the dictatorial policies of Ayub Khan. History should be analysed, free from all prejudices, likes and dislikes.

Source: Past present: Images of reconstruction
Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, April 24th, 2016

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The world is changed by your example, not by your opinion !

Past present: Reconstructing the past

Nations and communities view the past from various angles. Sometime it fascinates and inspires them while at other times it may be depressing and humiliating. There are cases where the past of communities and groups is represented by outsiders and not by the people belonging to these groups. For instance, the past of the Dalits of India has been reconstructed either by the higher castes or by foreign travellers, who visited India during the ancient and mediaeval periods. Dalits have played no role in documentation of their history.

In the Dharamsastras, the rules and regulations for the castes determine the social and cultural status of Dalits. They were not allowed to reside in the cities, nor to play an active or positive role in the society. During the colonial period, they were granted some concessions which allowed a tiny percentage of the Dalits to get education and look at their past with new and different perspectives.

Since historical sources are the sum total of all evidence left behind by the past societies, to rewrite history, a different of set of sources are selected
This was the first time that the Dalits traced their history and the past, based on their present conditions in which they were living. Dalit intellectuals published poignant poems, short stories and essays on their social, political and economic situation in their magazine, Dalit Voices. They rejected a past which provided them nothing but humiliation and deprivation.

The conversion symbolised the rejection of a Hindu past, and their new religion gave them hope to find a future which could provide them respectability in the society.
Their leader, Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar who was educated in the UK and the US and was the first law minister of India after Independence, realised that the Dalits have no salvation within the Hindu religion. Therefore, he decided to convert to Buddhism along with a large number of his followers. The conversion symbolised the rejection of a Hindu past, and their new religion gave them hope to find a future which could provide them with respectability in society. Thus, we find that Dalits accepted their lowest status of the past, and did not resist or react against the exploitation of the higher casts. Their religion required them to be submissive and obedient, and to observe and follow the regulation of their caste without any challenge. In the modern day, they have changed the dimensions of the past with a new understanding, and want to get rid of the burden and carve a new life for themselves in the future.

Source: Past present: Reconstructing the past
Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, May 8th, 2016

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The world is changed by your example, not by your opinion !

Past present: A historical travesty

In the early Islamic period, the discipline of history hadn’t been fully developed and had no significant impact on the consciousness of Arab society. Scholar Ibn Hazm (d.1064 AD) explains that religion was a source of understanding history; this transformed history into a branch of religion, which in turn, changed its structure and form.

The Arabs were proud of their poetry and had little interest in any other sources of knowledge. This can be interpreted from the fact that in the writings of Al Kindi (c. 873), Al Farabi (d. 950 AD) and Ibn Sena (d. 1037), there is no mention of history. As their source of knowledge was Greek translations, they took more interest in philosophy than in history.

Later on, even after the subject of history had evolved and transformed as a major source of past events, it did not find the kind of recognition that other sources of knowledge enjoyed. For example, in the encyclopaedic work Rasa’el Ikhwan al Safa, the topic of history is dealt with at the end — thus denoting the insignificance attributed to history at the time.

Scholars, therefore, had limited knowledge and perspective of history. It was believed that studying pre-Islamic history was of no use as it belonged to the days of ignorance (Jahiliyyah). According to these scholars, only Islamic history should be studied because it was based on truth and veracity.

Truth and facts take a beating when recording history becomes an act of theology
History as a subject was regarded as inferior to the extent that scholars would not take it up as a profession. Those who were involved in history writing were either courtiers or religious scholars and jurists; their reputations were based on their other professions and not as historians. For example, al Tabari (d. 923 AD) was known as a religious scholar and Ibn Khuldun (d.1406 AD) was renowned as a Qazi, although both men were great historians as well.

When independent Muslim states emerged, the rulers appointed court historians to write the history of their reign. These men were usually awarded this task in addition to their administrative posts.

As Muslim society was divided into different religious sects, history was used by each sect to prove their viewpoint and the righteousness of their ideology. As a result, history became subordinate to religion.

History was written either with a sense of devotion or in opposition to other sects, which in turn, caused prejudice and fuelled sectarian hatred. History suffered because each sect tried to write history in order to prove their truthfulness. In the process, history was distorted and past events were misquoted.

It, therefore, became impossible for a Muslim historian to write critically because faith and history were so intensively integrated with each other that they could not be separated. History was written between the bounds of theology, often reduced to sermonising and preaching ethical values only.

At a time when writing history was confined to reigning monarchs, royal dynasties and aristocracy, historians wrote only about things related to the court, its ceremonies, administration, collection of taxes, war strategy, organisation of army, conspiracies and intrigues. The object of such history was to train young princes and ruling classes on how to govern and control the affairs of the State.

However, the characteristic of Arabic historiography was to include different topics related to society besides the narrative of the ruling elite. On the other hand, Persian historiography dealt only with the history of rulers, aristocrats and state officials, and did not mention the contribution of other classes.

In the modern period, Muslim historiography has changed drastically. In every Muslim country, historians are writing history on the basis of nationalism.

They are now proud of the pre-Islamic past of their countries and include it as a continuity of their civilisation. For example, the Egyptians are taking pride in the Egypt of Pharaohs, the Syrians and Iraqis are tracing their roots to the Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrians civilisations.

This approach changed the structure of Muslim historiography and the spirit of nationalism secularised it. For example, Lebanese Christians richly contributed to the writing of history, and produced works such as Philip Hitti’s book History of the Arabs and Albert Hourani’s A History of the Arab Peoples.

Muslim historiography was further enriched when Muslim countries struggled against European imperialism. At this stage, politicians used past Muslim glory and grandeur to inspire people to fight against foreign powers. This nationalist history also included religious minorities as a part of their nationhood.

This politicisation of history resulted in a distortion of events to justify particular political points of view. And perhaps it is this dynamic that still begs the question: did Muslim societies learn any lessons from history, or was history treated as entertainment?

Source: Past present: A historical travesty
Published in Dawn, Sunday Magazine, May 22nd, 2016

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The world is changed by your example, not by your opinion !