Psychology = The scientific study of behaviour and the factors that influence it.
Taking into account Biological, Individual and Environmental factors.
• Two types of research:

Basic and Applied Science
o Basic research: Knowledge gained purely for its own sake. The goals are to describe how people behave and to identify factors that influence it. Research maybe carried out in lab or real world
• e.g. Robber’s Cave – Jigsaw case study - showed how competition leads to hostility but could be reduced by making them dependent on each other.
o Applied research: Knowledge gained to solve specific practical problems. Uses principles discovered via basic research to solve practical problems.
Goals of Psychology
• Four basic goals: DEuPIc
o Describe how people and animals behave
o Explain and understand the causes of the behaviour
o Predict how people and animals behave under certain conditions
o Influence or control the behaviour through knowledge and control of causes

Importance of Perspectives
• Diverse viewpoints allows for enriched understanding of behaviour and its causes
• Six different perspectives: biological, cognitive, psychodynamic, behavioural, humanistic, and sociocultural. PBS & HBC
o Psychodynamic - unconscious forces motivating behaviour
o Behavioural - role of external environment on out action
o Sociocultural - culture and behaviour relate
o Humanistic - self actualization and free will
o Biological - physical side of human nature, brain and genes
o Cognitive - thought process
The Biological Perspective
• Focuses on the physical side of human nature
o Emphasizes role of brain, including biochemical processes
• Mind-body dualism: The belief that the mind is a spiritual entity not subject to the physical laws that govern the body
o No amount of research on the body could ever explain the mind
o Ancient widely-held view, especially by Greeks
• Monism: The belief that the mind and body are one, and mental events are a product of physical events
o Modern view by most scientists

Discovery of Brain-Behaviour Relations
• Late 1700s, Luigi Galvani discovered severed leg of frog moved with electrical current applied to it
o Defied prior belief that bodily movements were caused by soul
• By 1870, researchers applied electrical stimulation directly to brains of animals
o Stimulation of specific areas on brain resulted in movements of particular muscles
• Karl Lashley damaged specific regions of brain and studied effects on learning and memory abilities in animals trained to run through mazes
• In 1929, invention of electroencephalogram (EEG) allowed researchers to measure electrical activity of large areas of brain

Evolution and Behaviour
• Darwin’s theory of natural selection demonstrated that inheritable characteristics that increase likelihood of survival will be maintained. Proposed that humans and apes arose from the same ancestor.
• Evolutionary psychology focuses on role of evolution in development of human behaviour
o Psychologists stress organism’s biology determine its behavioural capabilities and behaviour
• Sociobiology holds that complex social behaviours are built into human species as products of evolution
o Natural selection favors behaviours that increase ability to pass on genes (aggression, competition, dominance in males, cooperation and nurturing in females, etc.)
o Sociobiologists believe that one’s genetic survival is more important than one’s own physical survival (altruism)
o Criticized for overemphasizing innate biological factors at expense of cultural and social learning factors in explaining complex human social behaviour

Behaviour Genetics
• Study of how behavioural tendencies are influenced by genetic factors
• Animals can be bred not only for physical, but also behavioural traits (aggression, intelligence, etc.)
• Identical twins, with identical genetic makeup, are very similar in behaviour compared to fraternal twins
o Found even when identical twins reared in different homes

The Cognitive Perspective
• Views humans as information processors and problem solvers whose actions are governed by thought and planning. What sets humans apart is that we have mental capabilities.
o Studies how mental processes influence our motives, emotions, and behaviour
• Several schools and individuals contributed to modern cognitive perspective:
o Structuralism
 Analysis of mind in terms of its basic elements
 Studied sensations through introspection (“looking within”)Patients were exposed to stimuli and asked to explain their experiences.
 Wilhelm Wundt wanted to model study of the mind after physical and biological sciences. Believed mind could be studied via breaking it down to its basic parts, this was called structuralism. Believed sensations were basic elements of consciousness.
• Founded first laboratory of experimental psychology in 1879
Functionalism
 Psychology should study the functions of consciousness (the “why’s) rather than its structure- (the What’s)
 Influenced partly by Darwin’s evolutionary theory (adaption to succeed)
 William James broad functionalist approach helped widen the scope of psychology to include biological/mental processes and behaviour

Gestalt Psychology
 Concerned with how elements of experience are organized into wholes
• Opposite of structuralism
 Wolfgang Kohler concluded that ability to perceive relationships is the essence of intelligence
• Defined “insight” as sudden perception of a useful relationship or solution to a problem
• Demonstrated insight by observing chimpanzee use various items in a cage to reach a banana at the top
o Jean Piaget
 Studied how children think, reason, and solve problems
 Concerned with how the mind and its development contribute to our ability to adapt to our environment
o Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck
 Attempted to understand how mental distortions and irrational thought patterns create emotional problems
 Emphasized that distress and maladaptive behaviour are caused by the ways situations are thought about, not by external situations

Modern Cognitive Science
• Artificial intelligence develops computer models of complex human thought, reasoning, and problem solving
• Interested in how people produce and recognize speech and how creative solutions to problems are produced
• Social constructivism: What we consider reality is in large part our own mental creation
o Little shared reality exists apart from what groups of people socially construct through subjective meaning they give to their experiences
o Believe male and female sex roles created not by nature, but by shared world view that exists within social groups

The Psychodynamic Perspective
• Searches for causes of behaviour within workings of personality, emphasizing role of unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts from past
• Sigmund Freud emphasized role of complex psychological forces in controlling human behaviour
o Focused on hysteria, condition where physical symptoms develop without organic cause
o Found improvement in patients after they reported and relived painful childhood sexual experiences
o Led Freud to believe that most of human behaviour is influenced by unconscious forces
o Believed repression was a defense mechanism to keep anxiety-arousing impulses, feelings, and memories in unconscious depth of mind
o All behaviour is a reflection of unconscious internal struggle between conflicting psychological forces of impulse and defenses
• Freud opposed laboratory research, and depended on clinical observations and personal self-analysis

The Behavioural Perspective
• Focuses on the role of the external environment in shaping and governing our actions
o Behaviour influenced by learned habits and by stimuli in the environment
• History rooted in school of philosophy known as British Empiricism
o All ideas and knowledge are gained empirically
o John Locke: The human mind is initially a white paper, to be furnished by experience
o Observation overrules reasoning, since “seeing is believing” while reasoning has potential for error
o Pavlov found involuntary learning in dogs from external stimulus
• John Watson lead movement of behaviourism in 1920s
o Proper subject matter of psychology is observable behaviour, not unobservable inner consciousness
o Devoted efforts to discovering laws that govern learning and performance
• B. F. Skinner believed mental events, images, and feelings from within are behaviours and not causes
• Behaviour modification techniques alter problem behaviours and increase positive behaviours through alterations in environmental factors
• Cognitive behaviourism is an attempt to bridge gap between behavioural and cognitive perspectives
o Environment exerts effects on behaviour by affecting thoughts
o Mental abilities allow control of behaviour and influence of environment (control varies from environment  person and person  environment)

The Humanistic Perspective
• Emphasizes free will, innate tendencies towards growth, and attempt to find ultimate meaning in one’s existence
o Rejected images of behaviour control from unconscious forces
• Understand role of internal personality processes, but stress importance of conscious motives, freedom, and choice
• Active force toward growth and self-actualization (reaching individual potential)
• Terror management theory constructs reality, often involving afterlife and sense of order and stability, to have sense of personal value

The Sociocultural Perspective
• Focuses on the manner in which culture is transmitted to its members and on similarities/differences that occur among people from diverse cultures
• Culture: Enduring values, beliefs, behaviours, and traditions shared among a large group of people
• Each culture develops social norms
o Norms: Rules that specify what is acceptable and expected behaviour
• Humans have need to develop cultures
o Introduce order and particular world view into social system, creating predictability, guidelines for thought and behaviour, and a map for life
• Margaret Mead found striking differences in normal behaviour among men and women of three tribes
oCultural expectations and learning experiences can affect behaviour
• One of most important differences in cultures is emphasis on individualism vs. collectivism
o Individualism – North America, Europe
o Collectivism – Asia, Africa, South America

Perspectives in Historical Context
• 1879 – Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt)
• End of 19th
• End of 19 century – Functionalism (William James)
th
• 1920s – Behaviourism (B.F. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, John Watson) century – Psychodynamic (Sigmund Freud)
• 1960s – Cognitive (Allan Paivio)
• Always – Biological

Integrating the Perspectives
• Three levels of analysis for describing various aspects of behaviour and classifying casual factors: Biological, Psychological, Environmental
• Biological
o Everything psychological is biological
o Can analyze behaviour in terms of brain processes, hormones, and genetics
o Cannot explain experiences and feelings
• Psychological
o Can analyze role of thought, memory, planning, and problem solving
o Takes into account motivational, emotional, and personality processes that influence people
• Environmental
o Takes into account the environment, past and present, and personal and cultural that shape and stimulate behaviour
• Example: Depression
o Biological – Genetic factors, disrupted brain rhythms, chemical factors
o Psychological – Pessimism, severe losses/rejections from past
o Environmental – Non-rewarding environment, loss of social support

school of thaughts
perception and sensation
motivation and emotions
personality
endocrine glands
central nervous system
attitude and persuation

developmental psychology
psychological disorders
drug addiction
therapies
group dynamics
abnormal behaviour
job satisfaction

__________________
Attain knowledge before old age settles in. Hazrat Umar Farooq RadiAllahAnho

what is q of this all material?

school of thaughts
perception and sensation
motivation and emotions
personality
endocrine glands
central nervous system
attitude and persuation

developmental psychology
psychological disorders
drug addiction
therapies
group dynamics
abnormal behaviour
job satisfaction
again unable to understand what you want to tell/ explain?

the additional subjective factors that you mentioned i.e emotional health, interest, attention, motivation, personal traits are mentioned as subjective factors of learning and not perception.
dear according to me 1 important thing in perceptation is past experience. so when your experience stored in your memory, only then you can percieve particular stimulus. otherwise that is simple sensatation.
perception based on your past events.
hope you get my point.



do you think the two factors can be interchanged using common sense or do you think one should follow the strict clasification approved by the psychologists?
yes use common sense with arguments to justify your answer. i think points should be valid and fulfill q requirment it can be used in both.
regards

__________________
attitude makes the difference!

AoA,

Respected members, I was studying psychology & came across these two terms i.e "Sensitivity & Specificity". I am stuck on these two & am unable to understand the relationship of Sensitvity with "True Positive prediction" & relationship of Specificity with "True Negative Prediction". The more I study, the more I get confused. Here is a googled explanation copied below for reference. Please help me in understanding these terms!!!!


Sensitivity and specificity are terms used to evaluate a clinical test. They are independent of the population of interest subjected to the test.

Positive and negative predictive values are useful when considering the value of a test to a clinician. They are dependent on the prevalence of the disease in the population of interest.

The sensitivity and specificity of a quantitative test are dependent on the cut-off value above or below which the test is positive. In general, the higher the sensitivity, the lower the specificity, and vice versa.

Source: http://ceaccp.oxfordjournals.org/content/8/6/221.full

w salam

senstivity = positive results

specificity = negative results

i find the following link v easy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensiti...nd_specificity

still if you find confusion you are welcome to ask question

__________________
attitude makes the difference!

someone asked about imporatant topic of psychology so I illustrated the following topics.

school of thaughts
perception and sensation
motivation and emotions
personality
endocrine glands
central nervous system
attitude and persuation

developmental psychology
psychological disorders
drug addiction
therapies
group dynamics
abnormal behaviour
job satisfaction

__________________
Attain knowledge before old age settles in. Hazrat Umar Farooq RadiAllahAnho

comments, criticism and suggestions are strongly encouraged.


Q.2. List three stages of pre-natal development and discuss the important developmental events that occur during each stage.

Development : it is defined as the lifelong process of change
Or
It may be defined as physical, psychological and cognitive changes taking place throughout the life span.

Conception:
As a result of sexual intercourse, millions of sperms are introduced into the female body. They swim towards ova, female gamete. As one of the sperm fuses with ova, electric shock is given off which prevents other sperms from fusing. this results in the formation of zygote.
Following conception i.e fusion of male gamete with female ova, a zygote undergoes three stages namely
• Germinal stage
• Embryonic stage
• Foetal stage

Germinal stage : lasting from conception till two week stage is called the germinal stage. This stage ends up with the establishment of placenta. Neural tube starts to develop which later forms brain and spinal cord.

Embryonic stage: from two weeks to eight week stage is known as embryonic stage. At third week stage eyes formation occurs, at fourth week arm and leg buds are formed. Heart starts beating. In embryonic stage, all the important developmental organs complete their formation.

Fetal stage: it lasts from two months till the end of pregnancy. In this stage, completed organs start their functioning. Throughout, the developmental period a fetus receives all the necessary nutrients and gases from his mother through placenta. at the start, a foetus is only 3-4 inches in size but it grows as much as 20 inches in size till the completion of this stage.

development

4 weeks/1 month
• 1\10 th of an inch
• Zygote is protected in an amniotic sac
• Development of neural tube, brain, digestive system starts
• It is known as zygote

8 week
• 1 inch size
• Development of hands and feet buds.
• Face with basic features, eyes, ears is formed
• Heart beat starts
• It is known as embroyo

12 weeks
• 3-4 inches in size and 1 ounce in weight
• Hands, feet, toes and fingers start movement
• Sex becomes differentiated
• Fingerprints are formed
• Urine production starts.
• It is called “foetus”

16 weeks
• 5 1\2 to 6 inches in size, weight is 3 ounces
• Downy hair or lanuga are formed
• Coordinated movements starts
• Heat beats and is also detectable
• Skin is thin and transparent
20 week

• 12 inches in size and 1 pound in weight
• Heart beat can also be detected using stethoscope
• If aborted cannot survive

24 week
• 14 inches in size and 1-1 1\2 pound in weight
• Eyes open up
• Grip gets stronger
• Protective skin covering is formed

28 week
• 16 inches in size and 3 pounds in weight
• Baby is very active at this stage
• Rudimentary breathing starts
• If aborted at the stage can still survive

32 week
• 18 inches in size and 4-5 pound in weight
• Sleep and wakefulness pattern develops
• Meconium production starts
• Starts to assume birth position
• If aborted cannot survive

36 week
• 20 inches in size, 6 pounds in weight
• Baby is lazy
• Protective skin gets thicker
• Baby takes immunity from mother

conclusion: development is a continous process from simplicity to complexity. after the conception i.e fusion of male and female gametes, a zygote divides and multiplies and undergoes three important stages i.e germinal, embryonic and fetal before being delivered.

q.2 Differentiate between maturation and development. Identify several factors that can be harmful to the developing foetus.


comments, criticism and suggestions are strongly encouraged.


Maturation : ability of a cell, tissue, organ or organ system to reach its maximum potential is called maturation. The fields of examination of maturation includes
• sexual maturation: the ability of a body to reach sexual maturity with the onset of puberty
• intellectual maturation: thinking developed on the basis of logic and reasoning
• emotional maturation : ability to respond to new situations and absorb and express accordingly.

Development: lifelong process of change
Or
It the study of physical, psychological and cognitive change throughout life span

Development is an ongoing process or a continous process. It includes
• Physical development : this includes the development of both motor skills and sensory abilities
• Psychological development : generally psychological development is studied by freud’s psycosexual theory or by adler’s individual psychology
• Social development: erik erikson has divided the social development of individuals into 8 stages.
• Cognitive development : cognitive development includes both linguistic development and mental ability development.

Ways / methods/ principles of development
• Continous process : development is an ongoing process starting from the conception and ending on death.
• General to specific: development follows a certain patern i.e from general development to specific development of tissues and organs.

• Simple to complex: cells divide and multiply and form more cells. Group of cells form tissues which then form organs and organ systems
• Proximodistal : development occurs from centre towards periphery
• Cephalocordal : development occurs in head to tail direction.

Factors affecting fetus

The substances and chemicals that can adversely affect a fetus are known as teratogens. These include drugs, alcohol, toxins, ionizing radiations, etc.

a) Maternal health : it is an important determinant of fetal health. Researches conducted have shown that many children inherit disesases from their mother while still in the womb. Particularly, during first three months of pregnancy, rubella and german measles are very dangerous for the fetus.

b) medicines : use of certain medicines can be harmful for the developing fetus. Studies conducted showed that medicines given to pregnant ladies to control vomiting can lead to developmental abnormalities in the fetus. Even certain analgesics have shown similar adverse affects.

c) Drugs : use of drugs, alcohol and even smoking can be very injurious for the developing fetus. Studies conducted showed that children of heavily drinking mothers develop acute fetal syndrome with learning and memory abnormalities.

d) Toxins: nutrition of mother is a significant factor in the development of the fetus. If the mother consumes toxin, it can adversely affect the developing fetus, sometimes leading to abortion and still births.

e) Age : researches conducted showed that 22-30 is the ideal age for a woman to bear children. Under age or elderly mothers have more chances of producing children with deformaties. Studies conducted have shown that, generally women between the age of 18 and 38 are less likely to produce down’s syndrome children.

f) Stress: if a mother is under stress due to any reason, problems at work, or domestic issues relating to husband or in-laws, this can also affect the development of the child. Studies have confirmed that mothers with anxiety disorders tend to produce children with similar abnormalities.

g) Socio-economic conditions: the socioeconomic condition of a mother are also an important factor in the development of fetus. It is a matter of general knowledge, that women from poor families have more children and early births. These children may suffer from nutritional deficiencies, stunting their physical and mental development.

Conclusion: development is an ongoing process which continues from conception till death. Maturation is the ability to attain maximum potential. There are many factors that affect the development of a fetus such as mother’s age, socioeconomic condition, mental stress, nutritional health, medical heath etc. in addition, unhealthy habits of women such as consumption of alcohol or smoking can also affect the child adversely.

In embryonic stage, You have written, "In embryonic stage, all the important developmental organs complete their formation."

It is wrong. In the embryonic stage rudiments of all the important organs are present but their formation is not complete.

can u plz answer this question, i am a bit confused in it.
How did theorists belonging to functionalism define psychology? How did functionalism influence psychology as the science of behavioral and mental processes?
it is from the past papers of psychology. i can answer the first part of question easily but the second part is confusing me.

thanks saad for correcting me. i have actually added the line on my own as i felt all organs would have completed formation by then although the correct line is "the precursors of all the major organs of the body have been created.". but you are right, it is only the rudimentary formation, which is complete. thanks again for the correction.
now coming to you question, dear i have already attempted this question on page 6 i guess. you can see it there. simply it is to determine the influence of functionalism school on psychology (which is the study of behaviour and mental process).you can see it there and if you find it inappropriate then do suggest some improvement. i'll be grateful to you. thanks again saad for the correction.