Freud theory is a super hot topic

Which topics from Feldman are included? Can anyone please tell me the chapter no.s because some topics are seemingly irrelevant.

Consulting past Papers will solve ur problem

Q: 4 How do individual and cultural factors influence our perception? Discuss with examples.

comments,suggestion and criticism is highly encouraged

definition
Perception: discrimination, differentiation, organization and interpretation of stimulus.

Explanation
Perception is interpretation of sensation. Perception adds a meaning to the stimulus. The five sense organs, namely ears,eyes,nose,skin and tongue are important in receiving the stimulus. This information is sent to the brain which adds a meaning to it,thus resulting in our perception of the thing.

Example
When a pin pricks us or we touch any extremely hot or cold object, our skin detects the stimulus and sends information to brain,which then addsa certain meaning to the stimulus. this results in our perception of pain.

Factors affecting perception
The characteristics, determinants or causes which influence an individual’s perception of a thing are termed as the factors of perception. They may be
I. Subjective factors
II. Objective factors
III. Social factors/cultural factors
Objective factors are the determinants of the object or the stimulus which influence perception for e.g movement,novelty,repetition,duration, intensity,size etc

Subjective factors/individual factors
The characterstics of the perceiver which influences perception are termed as subjective factors.they may be considered the individual factors as they vary from indivudual to individual.
1. Freshness: it is a common observation that when an individual is tired or fatigue, his perception weakens up.on the contrary,after a bath or some sleep,he feels fresh and his perceptibility sharpens.
2. Mental ability : generally individuals who are more intelligent and mentally quick are good at perceiving things in their surroundings in a short span of time. For e.g if two different people are sent into same settings,their level of perception will vary depending upon their mental abilities.

3. Age: perception of a child varies considerably from the perception of an adult or an elderly. children tend to perceive objects relating to food or play more quickly. on the other hand, elderly shoo more perceptibility for items relating to rest.

4. Preparatory set: preparatory set refers to the individual’s alertness to a certain stimulus as opposed to others.for e.g a man waiting for a call may perceive the sound of phone call much quicker than his wife or their children.

5. Motives and need: motive is defined as the energizer which directs our behaviour towards a certain target. for e.g a hungry person is more likely to perceive food quicker than others.

6. Interest: it is the predisposition of individuals towards a particular thing.interest may be
• Innate
• Acquired
• Temporary
• permanent

7. Past learning: experience obtained fom past learning is usually quite helpful in perception of related things. For e.g due to our general knowledge of the voice of firecrackers and their association with children or weddings, we often perceive that a child is outside or a wedding is happening on the sound of the firecrackers.

Social factors
Determinants or the characteristics in a a society or a culture which influences the perception.

Attitudes
It refers to the individual’s likes or dislikes. We tend to perceive objects more positively with which we associate positive attitudes.

Stereotypes: it refers to the feelings we associate for any group due to the inheritance from the forefathers with a certain experience with he group,in absence of our own experience for e.g most Pakistanis perceive Indians to be double standard, hypocrite in nature although most of them do not have a real experience with indians

Social factors: man is a social animal.since his birth,he is dependent on others for support.as he develops,he learns that he relies on others for the formation of views and beliefs.we often follow the beliefs of our social circle. this also affects our perception for e.g bangles are associated with eid or wedding so if we see a girl with bangles we presume that she has been to a wedding

Suggestion: we tend to follow the suggestion of the religious leaders or political parties to which we belong.this,too affects our perception of other religions and political parties.


conclusion: perception is meaningful interpretation of sensation.in general perception of an individual is affected by numerous factors such as objective factors,social factors and subjective factors.individual factors such as age, preparatory set,interest ,motives play an important role in the perception.in addition,the cultural and social factors too are of utmost importance.

Q: 7 What is the rational behind using projective tests of personality? How TAT and Rorschach Ink Blot test are different in terms of their structure and psychometric qualities?

Personality: Organization of individual distinctive characteristics, habits and attitudes.

Introduction: personality word originates from “persona” greek origin which refers to the mask that the greek actors wore. every individual has certain likes,dislikes, different thinking pattern and habits which distinguish and differentiate one individual from another. personality may be assessed by:

• Non-projective tests: generally comprise of observer scales and self-report questionnaires. The scoring is based on some scales. for e.g MMPI.CPI,16PF and EPPS.
• Projective tests: projective tests are widely used to determine the personality of an individual. These tests are based on ambiguous stimulus and it is assumed that individuals vent out inner conscious and unconscious feelings through responses to the stimulus. For e.g TAT ,rorshach, HTP,WAT,RISB etc.

TAT (THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST): it was originally designed by henry murray in 1936 and later revised in 1938.

Process of TAT: it consists of 31 cards in form of three sets comprising of 10 cards each and one blank card. The cards are shown to the subject and he is asked to write a story on it. He is allowed to view the card for whatever time period and in whichever suitable angle. On the basis of the characteristics of the story, individual’s personality is assessed.the determination is primarily based on the “thema”.this thema is based on individual’s feelings, desires, conflics etc.
The story may be written or oral. if it is oral, then it is recorded by the psychologist in tape and if written, it is kept as a record in the files.

Assessment of TAT: Initially, the criteria used for the assessment of TAT was rigorous and time consuming. Nowadays, a new criteria is designed which focuses on:
I. Language, consistency ,focal point of the story.
II. Subject matter or theme of the story
III. Repetition of events
IV. Underlying sexual indications
V. Relationship of main character with others.

RORSCHAH INK BLOT: the test was designed by a swiss psychiatrist Hermann rorschah.

Design and process: in Rorschach ink blot test, there are ten cards with ink blots on them.5 of the cards are black and white ,while three are red, and 2 are of other colour they are formed by placing an ink spot in the middle of the paper and folding and refolding it. The cards are presented to the examinee in a certain order and he is asked to respond to them. The characteristics of his response determine his personality. The content of response, the focal point of response and consistency of response is considered.

Criteria of assessment:
• Location : it is considered that which part of the card is the basis of response. whether a part of the blot or the whole blot. People who focus on part of blot are concluded to be stubborn,while those with focus on whole blot are more integrative in their approach.
• Content : the content of response is given due consideration
• determination: response generated is assessed by determining the focal point of the examinee.

Assessment of personality
Mental health: this test is more than often used to determine the mental health of individuals particularly psychotic patients.

Emotional health: the responses generated are assessed to evaluate the emotional health of people.Individuals who view movement tend to be more expressive, while those who do not are viewed as being more passive and flat in emotions.

Critical analysis: projective and non-projective tests are widely used to determine the personality of individuals. Among projective techniques, TAT and rorschah ink blot are the most often employed methods. However,due to lack of objectivity they are often criticized.

short note on Agents of socialization (2013)

Socialization : it may be defined as internalization of norms, values and standards

Introduction: socialization is an a continuous,life long process.in this process,people adopt the standards, rules and values designed by the members of the society.basically,it has two aspects.foremost, an individual internalizes the practices and rules of the society to such a degree that its regulation does not requires an external agency. This implies, that the standards become a part of his personality. The second aspect of socialization is that people tend to follow the practices due to their innate desire to be respected and approved in the society. therefore, they follow acts which earns them a good reputation and they come up to the expectations of others.

Agents of socialization
Family: every individual is born into some family and every family has some prevalent rituals, rites, beliefs and traditions. The young individuals adopt the norms and practices followed by the older members of their family. As the biological being is transformed into a social being, he adheres more and more to his family norms. according to psychologists and sociologists, an individual is basically what his family is.

Peer: peer refers to the group with which an individual shares some common characteristics, ethnicity ,age etc.more frequently, age is the basis of peer groups. Young individuals tend to become each others peer as they are united by the youth culture. Many psychologists view it to be the second most important agewnt of socialization. whereas some others give it the prime importance particularly in case of orphans and homeless individuals. Peer group is usually used for the exachange of informal information relating to sex, drugs, jokes etc.

Educational institutions: educational institutions serve as an important agent of socialization where a formal environment is used to impart an academic curriculum knowledge.however, apart from the academic information, such institutions also provide informal information about ethics, morality, etc.

Community: as a number of individuals spent a large part of their time outside their homes, therefore community too acts as the agent of socialization for them tis includes market places, welfare homes,religious institutions.workplace, too is a part of the community and has a huge impact on an individual internalization of norms.

Mass media : diverse technologies used to provide information to the mass by employing mass communication is called mass media. It includes newspapers, electronic media, and social media .its importance in recent times has increased to an unprecedented level. Some believe, media is as important as economy.mass media has revolutionized the base of information sharing and has a huge imact on individuals as an agency of socialization

Critical analysis: socialization is an ongoing,life long process of adoption of socially approved norms and values. Many agents of the society are the determinants of this process, primarily, family and peer. In addition, educational instituitions and community too act as major players in this process. in recent times, media has also become a major agent.

Q.7. Define attitude, its components and how attitudes are formed.?

criticisms,comments and suggestions are strongly encouraged.kindly,pass comments positive, negative. whatever you think is needed as improvement. it will be a great help. nisma? exclusively? please dear make some comment

Attitude : relatively consistentent feelings about a person or a thing
Or
Evaluation of a person, issue or object

Components of attitude

Affection: this relates to the emotional component. Individuals can have different emotions about any thing
Behaviour: it refers to the course of action
Cognition: this includes feelings, beliefs about anything

Attitude, its component and example
For example if we suddenly come across a snake in our room, our cognition would be that whether we like it we destest it or fear it, our affection would be caring or cruel whereas our behaviour towards it would be the way we handle it.will we shoot it instantly or let it go by itself.

Components of attitude and social events

On social events such as weddings, exhibitions, parties etc, attitudes are largely visible. For instance the emotions of the individuals whether he is happy or sad on the occasion, coupled with the thoughts and beliefs that the occasion is important for religious purposes or temporal matters and finally the way an individuals acts on the event exhibits the attitudes.

Formation of attitudes
Most of the attitudes formed are a result of learning. this learning may be either through direct experience with the thing or due to observation on that certain thing, person or issue. Researches have also supported the fact if parents exhibit certain attitude towards any person or issue say racial inequality, then children of such parents also tend to imitate their behaviour.

a) Classical conditioning: it refers to the learned response to a stimulus due to its association with any stimulus likely to induce similar response. For e.g advertisements show beautiful people enjoying climate and sipping some drink. this illusion stirs positive attitude towards the drink.

b) Operant conditioning : positive and negative reinforcement plays an important role in the development of attitudes. For e.g if some individual has recently started to smoke and he faces severe criticism. each time he lights up a cigarette people complain or walk out of his vicinity,such sort of a negative reinforcement can cause the person to develop negative attitude towards cigarette and mostly likely convince him to give it up.

c) Social learning/observational learning: this type of learning was propagated by bandura. according to him, individuals tend to learn and imitate their observations. but this demands focus, memory and recovery of the information to be imitated. This type of learning also plays a critical role in attitude formation. Individuals tend to develop positive attitude towards things that are more appreciated in their surroundings and associate negative attitude towards the things that are discouraged. For e.g certain communities of the society are assumed to be dirty, messy and impious in their acts. this approach towards the communities is relayed to the successive generations through gestures and other signs.

d) Individuals tend to alter their behaviouur or their attitudes if they came across dissonant cognitions.


Attitudes dictate behaviour
It is a general view that people act according to their attitudes. sociologists and psychologists, however, proved contrary findings. according to them, individuals do not always act upon their attitudes. For instance many people in the society appreciate certain political party and its manifestos but still, they do not vote.
According to psychologists, in the following cases,behaviour are in accordance with the attitudes
• When there is likelihood that the behaviour would lead to any reward.
• Repetition of attitudes leads the development of behaviour
• When the attitude is developed due to personal experience
• When a person is an expert on the topic at hand
• When they are at they risk of winning or losing something

Critical analysis: attitudes are the personal likes and dislikes of an individual. they may be formed through observation or experience. In addition, reinforcement, be it positive or negative also plays a critical role in attitude formation. It is a general misconception that all behaviours are in line with attitudes, however some behaviours are the manifestation of underlying attitudes.

Compare and contrast any two theories of attitude formation. Highlight their drawbacks as well.

Theory: a set of statement or principles developed to explain a group of facts.

Explanation: attitudes are the assessment of an individual of any person, object or issue. Many theories tend to explain the formation of attitudes most notably learning theories and the cognitive dissonance theory.

Cognitive dissonance theory
Developed by festinger in 1950s, the theory deals with the formation and change of attitudes as a result of dissonant cognitions. In 1957, festinger published his work on behaviour of man. He defined cognitions to be facts, values and beliefs.

The theory states
• Cognitive dissonance leads to uncomfortable feelings and people try to reduce the distress.
• Individuals in stress due to cognitive dissonance try to avoid further distress by avoiding conflicting cognitions
• It is easy to understand, how cognitive dissonance arises-information rich areas produce more dissonance.on the contrary,it is very dfficuilt to cope with it and to eradicate it.

Core assumptions of theory

The theory assumes that individuals have many cognitions some related and others unrelated. sometimes, related cognitions do not follow each other rather they contradict each other, resulting in cognitive dissonance. the situation is so distressing that some individuals belief that consonant cognitions are as essential as basic needs. For e.g “ I like ice cream “ but “ I cannot eat ice cream as I am following a rigorous diet plan” .

Cognitive dissonance leads to formation and change in attitudes:

When individuals confront conflicting cognitions leading to cognitive dissonance, they tend to master the situation by either attitudinal change or behavioral change.

Drawback of the theory
• The theory fails to take into account individuals that are more resistant to cognitive stress
• The theory does not deals with the characteristics of the message
• It does not considers the importance of persuasion

Learning theories:
Attitude formation, mostly is a result of learning and observation.in this regard,classical conditioning, reinforcement of operant conditioning, and the importance of observational learning needs due attention.

e) Classical conditioning: it refers to the learned response to a stimulus due to its association with any stimulus likely to induce similar response. For e.g advertisements show beautiful people enjoying climate and sipping some drink. this illusion stirs positive attitude towards the drink.


f) Operant conditioning : positive and negative reinforcement plays an important role in the development of attitudes. For e.g if some individual has recently started to smoke and he faces severe criticism. each time he lights up a cigarette people complain or walk out of his vicinity,such sort of a negative reinforcement can cause the person to develop negative attitude towards cigarette and mostly likely convince him to give it up.

g) Social learning/observational learning: this type of learning was propagated by bandura. according to him, individuals tend to learn and imitate their observations. but this demands focus, memory and recovery of the information to be imitated. This type of learning also plays a critical role in attitude formation. Individuals tend to develop positive attitude towards things that are more appreciated in their surroundings and associate negative attitude towards the things that are discouraged. For e.g certain communities of the society are assumed to be dirty, messy and impious in their acts. this approach towards the communities is relayed to the successive generations through gestures and other signs.

Draw backs of learning theories:
• Classical conditioning can only be used for basic and survival needs such as sexual arousal or food, thirst etc
• Operant conditioning deals strickly with good and bad attitude and leaves no room for an intermediate attitude
• Observational learning fails to consider individual differences of attitude
• It does not consider that observation of rewards for one may be a punishment for another

Q: 2 Give your valuable comments on the importance of Developmental Psychology.

Developmental psychology: branch of psychology which deals with the cognitive, social, and physical development over the entire life span
Or
Branch of psychology which deals with the lifelong process of change.

Change in this case includes physical, psychological, emotional, social, linguistic, and mental change.

Explanation: developmental psychology is very extensive in scope. it covers the entire life span of an individual from infancy till old age. initially, it dealt with infancy and childhood only, including adulthood at a successive stage and old age much later. It also deals with the progressive decline in an individual over a period of time called, aging. The study of developmental psychology starts even before birth, beginning from the conception i.e fusion of male and female gamete to the development of a zygote. This zygote then goes through embryonic and fetal stage to be delivered. Then an individual passes through five stages namely
• Infancy ( 0-2 years)
• Childhood (2- puberty)
a) Early childhood
b) Middle childhood
c) Late childhood
• Adolescence (puberty stage)
• Adulthood (20-40 years)
a) Young adults
b) Middle adults
c) Old adults
• Aging ( 60 years onwards)

Importance of developmental psychology

Understanding oneself: we were all infants once and have gradually developed into adults. Developmental psychology helps us to gain an insight of ourselves.

To develop into better parents: at some point of our lives, we tend to bear children. In order to understand them better and to develop into a better parent for them, developmental psychology can be quite beneficial. Parents, who are unaware of this branch often fret at non-issues. For e.g freud psychosexual theory helps parents understand the requirements of individuals in different life spans oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital

To cope with kids better: not only as parents, but sometimes as professionals we tend to interact with children e.g nurses, pediatricians teachers. Children have their own imagination and their own way of relating with things, which is often beyond the comprehension of a normal adult. but developmental psychology can help us tackle the issue with ease. for e.g children of social parents tend to be more social while those of authoritative parents are more reserve. Such a knowledge will help teachers, nurses, paediatricians in understanding the child and dealing with him specifically in his own way.

To appreciate the process of development: development is a continuous process. Although, there is a general misconception that development is only the process from infancy to adulthood, but the concept is faulty. Development is an ongoing process. As we are going through adulthood, facing old age, the study of developmental psychology will help us to appreciate each and every stage and cope with it better. In this regard, eric erikson, s theory can be quite handy as it provides useful knowledge of the requirements of each and every stage of an individual.

Differentiation between normalcy and abnormal: the study of developmental psychology is quite useful in the differentiation between normal individuals and abnormal individuals and to deal with them accordingly. For e.g there is a general pattern that children enter there one word stage by one year and two word stage by two year, but if children do not utter words, then an ware parent can properly deal with the situation.

Early signs of trouble: all individuals are unique, but still they follow a certain developmental pattern. Study of human development helps us in discriminating between the typical developmental signs and any abnormal signs, which can lead to early detection. Medical intervention is always more useful at initial level.

Conclusion: development psychology provides an insight into the unique process of human development from the point of conception till aging. Development is an ongoing process which culminates only with the death of an individual. Developmental psychology helps one to cope better with others and also to understand oneself in a better way.

definition
Perception: discrimination, differentiation, organization and interpretation of stimulus.

Explanation
Perception is interpretation of sensation. Perception adds a meaning to the stimulus. The five sense organs, namely ears,eyes,nose,skin and tongue are important in receiving the stimulus. This information is sent to the brain which adds a meaning to it,thus resulting in our perception of the thing.

dear perception is not sensatation, stimulus send to brain and its result come out, 1 important thing in perception is our past experience and on which we meaning to sensatation.

Example
When a pin pricks us or we touch any extremely hot or cold object, our skin detects the stimulus and sends information to brain,which then addsa certain meaning to the stimulus. this results in our perception of pain.
if we have past pain experience only then we will percieve without pricking than pen nib will hurt.

Factors affecting perception
The characteristics, determinants or causes which influence an individual’s perception of a thing are termed as the factors of perception. They may be
I. Subjective factors
II. Objective factors
III. Social factors/cultural factors
Objective factors are the determinants of the object or the stimulus which influence perception for e.g movement,novelty,repetition,duration, intensity,size etc

Subjective factors/individual factors
The characterstics of the perceiver which influences perception are termed as subjective factors.they may be considered the individual factors as they vary from indivudual to individual.
1. Freshness: i dont find it good point, it is a common observation that when an individual is tired or fatigue, his perception weakens up.on the contrary,after a bath or some sleep,he feels fresh and his perceptibility sharpens.
2. Mental ability : generally individuals who are more intelligent and mentally quick are good at perceiving things in their surroundings in a short span of time. For e.g if two different people are sent into same settings,their level of perception will vary depending upon their mental abilities.

3. Age: I find it irrelevent point. may be it is good. perception of a child varies considerably from the perception of an adult or an elderly. children tend to perceive objects relating to food or play more quickly. on the other hand, elderly shoo more perceptibility for items relating to rest.

4. Preparatory set: perceptual set; it is temporary tedency of the organism to percieve a stimulus in a certain way because of previous experience. it is readiness to detect a perticular stimulus in a given context e.g mother to hear cries of her child preparatory set refers to the individual’s alertness to a certain stimulus as opposed to others.for e.g a man waiting for a call may perceive the sound of phone call much quicker than his wife or their children.

5. Motives and need: motive is defined as the energizer which directs our behaviour towards a certain target. for e.g a hungry person is more likely to perceive food quicker than others.

6. Interest: it is the predisposition of individuals towards a particular thing.interest may be
• Innate
• Acquired
• Temporary
• permanent

7. Past learning: experience obtained fom past learning is usually quite helpful in perception of related things. For e.g due to our general knowledge of the voice of firecrackers and their association with children or weddings, we often perceive that a child is outside or a wedding is happening on the sound of the firecrackers.

According to me subjective factors are
Motivation
perpceptual set
expectations
past experiences
attention
intrests
attitude
personel atributes
emotional state
personal values



Social factors
Determinants or the characteristics in a a society or a culture which influences the perception.

Attitudes (Indiviual factor)
It refers to the individual’s likes or dislikes. We tend to perceive objects more positively with which we associate positive attitudes.

Stereotypes: it refers to the feelings we associate for any group due to the inheritance from the forefathers with a certain experience with he group,in absence of our own experience for e.g most Pakistanis perceive Indians to be double standard, hypocrite in nature although most of them do not have a real experience with indians

Social factors: man is a social animal.since his birth,he is dependent on others for support.as he develops,he learns that he relies on others for the formation of views and beliefs.we often follow the beliefs of our social circle. this also affects our perception for e.g bangles are associated with eid or wedding so if we see a girl with bangles we presume that she has been to a wedding

Suggestion: we tend to follow the suggestion of the religious leaders or political parties to which we belong.this,too affects our perception of other religions and political parties.

social factor are
social values
social beliefs
customs and rituals
social norms/ mores
national laws


conclusion: perception is meaningful interpretation of sensation.in general perception of an individual is affected by numerous factors such as objective factors,social factors and subjective factors.individual factors such as age, preparatory set,interest ,motives play an important role in the perception.in addition,the cultural and social factors too are of utmost importance.


what i think correct i added, suggestion are welcome.

regards

__________________
attitude makes the difference!

dear, i strongly appreciate your comments as i feel someone has really read my effort and not just glanced over it.

dear its preparatory set ( i am following jahangir exam cram series on psychology and it is mentioned in it as preparatory set and not perceptual set)

the additional subjective factors that you mentioned i.e emotional health, interest, attention, motivation, personal traits are mentioned as subjective factors of learning and not perception.

do you think the two factors can be interchanged using common sense or do you think one should follow the strict clasification approved by the psychologists?

once again, thanks a lot for checking my question. it means a lot to me. thank you dear.